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In two probe recognition experiments we presented preVf and corresponding focusless neutral sentences embedded in five-sentence stories. Stories were followed by the presentation of sentence probes in one of three conditions: i the probe was identical to the original sentence in the story, ii the focused word i. In Experiment 1, probes were presented immediately after the stories measuring WM performance, while in Experiment 2, blocks of six stories were presented and cuarnens svájci anti aging were probed with a 2-minute delay measuring delayed recognition memory performance.
Results revealed an advantage of the focused element in immediate öregedésgátló bőrkrém minősített not in delayed retrieval. We found no effect of sentence type on the recognition of the two different probe types in WM performance.
However, results pertaining to the memory accessibility of focus alternatives in delayed retrieval showed an interference effect resulting in a lower memory performance. We conclude that this effect is indirect evidence for the enhanced activation of focus alternatives. The present work is novel in two respects. First, no study has been conducted on the memory representation of focused elements and their alternatives in the case of the structurally marked Hungarian pre-verbal focus construction.
Fényterápia az öregedés ellen, to our knowledge, this is the first study that investigates the focus representation accounts for WM and delayed recognition memory using the same stimuli and same measured variables.
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Since both experiments used exactly the same stimulus set, and they only differed in terms of the timing of recognition probes, the principle of ceteris paribus fully applied with respect to how we addressed our anti aging és boca raton question regarding the two different memory systems. Introduction The present work investigates the memory accessibility of linguistically focused elements in Hungarian and their representation in Working Memory WM and with a delay before retrieval.
There are a multitude of theories regarding how focused elements and their alternatives are represented in memory predicting contradictory outcomes. Therefore, the primary aim of the present work is to further investigate the issue at hand, and to offer an explanation for findings based on general psychological principles pertaining to human memory. Since currently there is no data regarding the memory representation of the focused element and its alternatives for Hungarian focus, a secondary aim is to fill this gap by investigating how this particular focus construction affects WM performance, and memory performance when one is not able to rely exclusively on processes for maintaining information in WM i.
A tertiary aim is to investigate what can potentially belong to the set of alternatives evoked by focus. Regarding these issues, we formulated and tested the following predictions.
We predicted that focused elements are anti aging és boca raton readily accessible in WM than corresponding non-focused elements. Since results on delayed retrieval are scarce in the literature, we made no predictions regarding the accessibility to focused elements when there is a delay before retrieval, and hence one can not rely on WM processes.
However, we made the tentative suggestion that anti aging és boca raton facilitatory effect observed in WM disappears. As far as focus alternatives are concerned, earlier results are contradictory, therefore, we aimed to adjudicate between the two conflicting predictions that focus enhances the representation of focus alternatives or it does not. Regarding the question of what constitutes the set of focus alternatives, we tested the prediction that—if alternatives are generated at all, not only semantically but contextually related alternatives are also activated.
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In generative linguistic frameworks, focusation is often analyzed as movement to a functional projection. An interesting work from this domain suggests that certain movements or extraction phenomena like movements from islands may be related to a principle called semantic dominance Erteschik-Shir, or dominance Erteschik-Shir and Lappin, This principle clearly predicts that a to be focused element should appear in a designated syntactic focus position if the adopted theoretical linguistic framework assumes that sentences are derived and that derivations involve movements.
Positing movements, together with the corollary that traces are left behind, gives rise to a number of psycholinguistic questions regarding how these structures are processed and represented.
Since these questions are beyond the scope of the present work, we will confine our investigation to the memory representation of focused elements and their alternatives without committing ourselves to any formal theory of syntax on focus.
There are two central functional anti aging és boca raton of focus in the literature. First, it is claimed that the function of focus is to partition the sentence into two parts: the foreground and the background see e.
Focus is claimed to mark the foreground, highlighting important, emphatic, interesting, contrasted or new information against the background, which is often but not necessarily taken to be part of the common ground of the interlocutors. Second, based on Rooth's alternative semantics approach Rooth, it is commonly held that the function of focus is to evoke a set of alternatives: it expresses that there is a set of entities whose subset is selected by focus.
Both functional definitions, namely the function of highlighting against a background and the function of signaling the presence of alternatives have been taken up by psycholinguistic enquiry and shown to have psychological reality.
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Anti aging és boca raton Results on the Functional Aspects of Focus The highlighting function of focus has been related to attention in the psychology of language processing: a wide array of studies have shown that the psychological function of focus is to guide the attention of the listener to the focused element.
For example, in a seminal paper Bredart and Modolo used it-cleft constructions, a type of syntactic focus, to investigate whether the so-called Moses illusion is modulated by focus. The authors presented anomalous cleft sentences, such as It was Moses who took two animals of each kind on the Ark. The sentence is anomalous, since according to the Biblical story, it was Noah who brought two animals of each kind onto the ark before the flood.
Participants were instructed to carry out a sentence verification task. The variable of interest was how frequently participants spotted the anomaly as a function of whether the incongruous item i. The results indicated a higher detection rate in the focused condition lending support to the idea that focus indeed guides attention to the focused element.
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Relying on the findings of Bredart and Modolo and Sturt et al. The authors hypothesized that since focus directs attention to the focused element, this element is subject to in-depth processing, and consequently its representation is more fine-grained than those of unfocused elements. Sturt et al. Critical probes were the same texts containing one change: the target word was either replaced by a semantically related word, or a semantically unrelated word.
The results revealed that the naturally good ránctalanító rates were equally high irrespective of focus in the unrelated condition. However, in the semantically related condition, anti aging és boca raton made a difference: while changes were significantly less likely to be detected when the critical noun was not focused, detection rates remained high in the related condition when it was in focus.
Based on these results, the authors concluded that focus indeed directs attention and thus can modulate the specificity or granularity of the meaning representation of linguistic expressions on granularity see Hobbs, This account of focus representation was named the granularity account by Sanford et al. Another approach to the highlighting function of focus is the identification account formulated by Almor and Eimas This account proposes that the primary function of focus is to facilitate the identification of the focused element in order to enhance the efficiency of the discourse integration of linguistic elements.
To test this hypothesis, Almor and Eimas investigated how syntactic focus i. The results showed that participants responded faster when the antecedent of the subject was focused compared to when it was not, lending support to the hypothesis that focused elements are more accessible in online processing. Almor and Eimas also investigated the long-term accessibility of the focused elements using a questionnaire in which questions elicited the delayed recall of critical focused words.
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In the recall task, the authors found an adverse effect for focus: if the critical word was marked for focus earlier during the experiment, its recall rate was lower compared to when it was unfocused. In sum, the results of experimental work on the highlighting or attention capturing function of focus inspired the formulation of two mutually non-exclusive accounts of focus representation: the identification account and the granularity account.
Note, that the granularity account is a stronger one: it includes the predictions of the identification account, since it claims that focus has an attention capturing property: if a linguistic element captures the attention of the addressee, its identification will also be fostered.
Furthermore, the granularity account claims that focus leads to an in-depth processing of the focused element resulting in a more fine grained representation.
For these reasons, we abandon the identification account, and test the predictions of the granularity account in the present work. The anti aging és boca raton of research inspired by the alternative semantics approach to focus Rooth,; Krifka,concentrates on the activation of alternatives generated by a focus containing expression.
An account formulated in this vein is the so-called contrast account see e. For example, testing the contrast account, Fraundorf et al.
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The results showed improved performance on the contrastively accented words relative to the words with non-contrastive accent. Fraundorf et al. To tease apart these accounts, the authors carried out a sentence verification experiment using the same materials.
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In this experiment participants were presented statements in three conditions and had to verify their truth with respect to the sentences heard earlier. Statements belonging to the three conditions i contained the same target item as the test sentence, ii contained a mentioned contrast item, or iii contained an unmentioned but within-category item. The granularity account predicts an enhanced representation primarily for the focused item, whereas the contrast account predicts that the representation of both the focused item and the members of its contrast set should be enhanced.
Therefore, Fraundorf et al. According to the contrast account, however, the sentence containing the mentioned contrast item should be enhanced while the advantage should not extend to the sentence containing the unmentioned alternative, since the unmentioned item was not a member of the original contrast set.
The results were found to support the contrast account. Another account using Rooth's alternative semantics as a point of departure is the focus association account, which proposes that alternatives for focus are enhanced whether they are in the contrast set or not.
In one experiment by Gotzner et al. Participants performed a probe recognition task after hearing stories as in 1 contrastive accent marked by capital letters.
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Extra filler sentence: He announced the verdict. After the story, a probe word was presented which was the mentioned alternative in the context sentence of the critical conditions witness.
The task of the participants was to decide if the word had appeared in the story or not.
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The results revealed that RTs were fastest in the contrastive accent condition indicating that the accessibility of alternatives was enhanced by contrastive focusing. However, inclusion of the focus particles resulted in longer RTs, which, as the author argues, is the consequence of interference: if focus is explicitly used to mark the presence of alternatives as in the case of only and alsothe focus alternatives become more activated.
According to the authors, this higher activation of the set of alternatives in turn led to a greater level of competition during the probe recognition task manifest in an interference effect, i.
In another experiment, Spalek et al.
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The results revealed that while there was no facilitative effect of focus particles on the recall of the focused elements themselves, the presence of a particle significantly increased the recognition rate of the focus alternatives. The rather selective summary of experimental studies above reveals that there is considerable diversity in the methods of inquiry, the investigated focus types within and across languagesthe findings, and also in the theories of focus representation.
Note that findings pertaining to the memory representation of focused elements and alternatives come both from tests given immediately after the presentation of the critical sentence e. WM is the cognitive system responsible for storing, processing and manipulating information needed for a given cognitive task for a limited period of time Baddeley,; Unsworth and Engle, ; Cowan,while LTM is responsible for storing information over long periods of time Cowan, ; Baddeley, Apart from issues related to the representation and accessibility of focus alternatives, the question of what constitutes this set has also been taken up by psycholinguistic research.
As fleshed out by Gotznerthere is a permissive and a restrictive view. The permissive view, based on Roothclaims that it is the context that serves to designate the alternative set, therefore, alternatives are selected based on pragmatic principles.
On the other hand, the restrictive view claims that only those elements can constitute such a set that are semantically contrasted Wagner, Consider example 2 adopted from Wagner, He produces high-end convertibles.
What did he bring as a present to the wedding? He brought a [cheap]Focus convertible. According to the restrictive view, since color has no relation to quality or cheapness, being blue 2c cannot constitute an alternative to being high-end, as being cheap can 2b.
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In order to test the predictions of the permissive and restrictive views, Gotzner re-analyzed data from a lexical decision experiment Gotzner et al. In one group replacement group the unmentioned probe could be a potential replacement of the focused element in the test sentence test sentence: He only bought jackets, related probe: trousers, unrelated but possible probe: lychees.
The other group contained trials in which the unmentioned probe could not be a possible replacement of the focused element test sentence: He only caught flies, unrelated and impossible probe: sofas. Including the factor of Replacement in the analysis revealed that responses for semantically unrelated but possible replacements and unmentioned but semantically related items were equally fast leading to the conclusion that unrelated items can be a part of the set of alternatives if they are possible replacements.
In a subsequent study Jördens et al. Participants were presented with sentences e. Two types of probes were presented: one type was either a contextually related and potential focus alternative to the prime word e. The other probe type was both semantically unrelated and contextually inappropriate e. The experimental task was to indicate whether the probe had appeared in the sentence. RT data revealed that participants were fastest responding to unrelated probes, most probably due to their marked deviation from the prime words.
